Space Medicine and Law Emerging Trends and Challenges

I. Introduction

Space Medicine in simple terms is practice of medicine on astronauts in outer space. According to a paper published by Dr. Lily Srivastava, “Space medicine involves understanding and dealing with physiological and psychological effects on human in space environment and to adopt the necessary counter-measures.”

The main objective is to ascertain for how long people can survive the extreme conditions of space, and how quickly they can adjust to the Earth's environment after returning.

The science of Space Medicine seeks to ensure that astronauts work in a safe environment by evaluating medically significant aspects of space travel (including lift-off and re-entry) taking into consideration the various characteristics of space such as radiation exposure, absence of the day and night, and existence in a closed environment etc.

The World Health Organisation which defines ‘health’ as ‘a general sense of physical, mental and social wellbeing, not only the absence of disease’ This physical and mental wellbeing of humans applies to all human including those that are on space-expeditions and missions- i.e. astronauts’.

Space medicine is important because it raises and seeks to answer important questions that are in the general sprit of health and wellbeing of all as envisioned under the WHO’s vision. Some important benefits of space medicine in this regard are:

• The prevention if adverse effects of geographical forces on the body.
• The maintenance of physical and mental fitness of astronauts by the use of appropriate physical and psychological countermeasures.
• The delivery of medical care to distant places in space etc.

Given this crucial role of space medicine, this paper seeks to understand the various facets of law that govern it and the legal position of space biology at an international level.

As such, this paper will discuss briefly the various historical factors that influenced the development of space medicine, the effects of space travel on the human body, the standards set by various international space agencies in this regard with focus on the Astronaut training programs of these agencies, the unsettled considerations of medicinal- space law, the challenge it currently faces and what need to be done to clarify the situation.

(A) Research problem

In this age of rapid technological advancement, activities in space and the use of space by humans has also increased rapidly. Manned missions to space are also being undertaken by countries across the globe. In this situation, there needs to be foundational law that focuses on standardising space medical law to ensure the psychological and physiological impacts of space travel on the human body as there are several risks involved with the same.

(B) Review of Literature

1. Lily Srivastava, ‘Space Medicine and the Law’ (2012)

This was a paper published by the author in the National Law University, Delhi’s Journal in 2012. In this paper, the author discussed the nature of space medicine, the various legal problems associated with it and the position of international law on the matter.

2. Reports on the Official NASA website

These are reports and articles written by various NASA scientists and researchers. For the purposes of this paper are the ones referred to and relied on are:

• Dunbar B, “Who Was Alan Shepard?” (NASA June 9, 2015)
• Dunbar B, “What Was the Apollo Program?” (NASA February 24, 2015)
• Abadie L and ors, “The Human Body in Space” (NASA March 30, 2016)

3. L Braak, ‘Benefits of Space Medicine for Health’ (1999)

In this piece, the author discusses the benefits of space medicine and how it can help better life as we know it. The author makes references to various standards laid out by WTO with regard to ‘health’ and links this to space medicine.

4. Dietrich Manzeyand ors, ‘Mental performance in extreme environments: results from a performance monitoring study during a 438-day spaceflight’, (1998)

This is part of a book under which the author discusses the psychological impacts of space travel. He speaks about the changes in behavioural and social patterns of the human body when confines in a small unit for too long.

5. Exploring the Ethics of Space Medicine’, Institute of Medicine, (2001)

This is the 6^th chapter in a book titled ‘Safe Passage: Astronaut Care for Exploration Missions’ published by the National Academics Press in 2001. In this chapter, the various ethical conflicts involved in space medicine and astronaut rights are described by the author.

(C) Research objective

• To learn the evolution of Space Medicine
• To understand the risks involved with space travel
• To scrutinize the existing legal standards to be met before, during and after space flight
• To analyse some of the controversial aspects of medico-space law
• To identify the shortcomings of the law in this regard

(D) Relevancy of topic

Given the upsurge of space activities and the rise in manned spacial trips for scientific, technological and commercial purposes, it is important to understand the law governing space biology as maximum safety must be sought for the men and women in space so that their lives are not compromised and also so that they can carry out the necessary experiment, tasks and observations in space as freely as possible. Further, nowadays, countries small and big are seeking to expand their activities in space as such, there is a need for a skeleton law internationally that establishes the safety standards for astronauts that countries can rely on for future manned missions to space. For this, an understanding of the risks, trends, questions, challenges, and lacunas of the law of space medicine is crucial.

(E) Research question

1. How did Space Medicine evolve?

2. What are the impacts of space- travel on the human body?

3. What are the standards of astronaut safety and training set by different countries through their respective Space Research Agencies?

4. What are some of the conflicting considerations and challenges in this regard?

(F) Research methodology

The methodology followed in this paper is ‘Doctrinal Method of Research’ as research is based on legal standards set by various governmental space agencies like NASA. Also, the research questions are answered after examining various reports and research articles prevalent on the topic and other online sources such as blogs and e-books. As such the research methodology used is, analytical research, based on secondary data’s available.

(G) Scope

The study is limited to the laws existing in USA, Russia, China and India and seeks to give an overview of the existing trends rather than a critical analysis owing to the fact that law on the subject-matter is limited.

(H) Hypothesis:

It is hypothesized that having a comprehensive overview of the existing law on space medicine and identifying the emerging trends in the field will help ascertain the standards and obligations that need to be established under international law to regulate space medicine.

II. Evolution of space medicine- a brief note

The phrase ‘Space Medicine’ was first coined by Hubertus Strughold (1898–1987), a former Nazi physician and physiologist, who was brought to the United States after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip.

Strughold played an important role in developing a ‘pressure suit’ that early American astronauts could wear during space travel. This was one of the first significant developments in the field of Space Medicine in order to ensure safety of astronauts while in space. He co-founded of the ‘Space Medicine Branch of the Aerospace Medical Association’ in 1950.

After this, in 1957, the Soviet Union Launched Sputnik I, a space satellite that kick-started the Space Race between the USSR and the USA. Further, on 12 April 1961, Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union became the first human to journey into outer space when his Vostok spacecraft completed one orbit of the Earth.

The launch of Sputnik I drove NASA to expedite US space exploration efforts. In this process ‘Project Mercury’ came about.

Project Mercury was the first spaceflight program of the United States, running from 1958 through 1963 that sought to put a man into the Earth’s orbit and return him safely to earth. Under this project, NASA conducted 20 un-crewed developmental flights (some using animals), and six successful flights by astronauts. The program cost around $2.2 billion. The astronauts were known as the ‘Mercury Seven.’

Less than a month later, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, launched in a spacecraft he named Freedom 7.

These are significant steps in the development of Space medicine as for the first time ever man was setting foot into an unknown territory. The extra-terrestrial space zone was being explored. Though these men were trained officers of the Army and Naval forces of the respective countries, the impact the space-flight would have on their bodies was not clearly known at the time. In fact, many details about Shepard’s flight were kept confidential for quite some time. The impacts of these space flights on the human body were also unexplored but these missions paved a way for research and development in the field. The effects of the space flight on Shepard were gradual and spanned over a period of time.

After this flight, NASA selected Shepard to be part of the first crewed Gemini mission, which was called Gemini 3. However, after his first flight, Shepard developed a medical problem. He woke one morning dizzy and nauseated, and found himself falling down continually. He was subsequently diagnosed with Ménière's disease. The fluid in his inner ear had built up, thereby causing vertigo. Thus, he was forbidden from traveling in space. Later, he had surgery to fix the ear problem, and he was able to fly again. Almost 10 years passed between his first and second flights (which was to the moon). These are the first of the records of the physiological impacts of space travel on the human body.

The next significant step that pushed the study of space medicine was the landing of man of the moon. The goal to land man on the moon consisted of a series of failed missions undertaken by both the power-blocs in order to establish space and technological supremacy during the space-race. While the USSR managed successful unmanned missions to the moon like the Luna Mission, USA with its ‘Apollo Program’ (1963-1972) managed successful manned- missions to the moon with Apollo 11 managing to land the 1^st man on the moon- Neil Armstrong. Amongst other things, one of the objectives of the Apollo Program was to ‘develop man’s capability to work in the lunar environment.’

This is significant in the development of space medicine because sending man to space is one thing but entering the territory of another celestial body is advancement like none other.

Post the Apollo missions, from 1973-1974, under NASA's Skylab program; three missions took place, with astronauts spending a total of 171 days in space. Its objectives were:

• ‘to prove that humans could live and work in space for extended periods
• to extend our knowledge of solar astronomy well beyond Earth-based observations.’

This yet again required advancements on the assessment of the effects of space travel on the human body.

Other significant developments since then include the launch of the Space Shuttle Columbia on April 12, 1981. Further, October 29, 1998 a 77-year old John Glenn became the oldest human to go into space, aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery.

April 28, 2001 - Dennis Tito was the first ‘space tourist,’ paying $20 million to ride on a Russian rocket to the International Space Station. Space tourism has in recent times gained more popularity and is an activity pursued passionately by several space companies and organisations. This is yet another important step in the development of space medicine as it involves the regular civilian population going to space as such; their physiological and psychological preparations for the same must be regulated carefully.

Moving ahead, on October 15, 2003, China sent its first man Yang Liwei to space aboard Shenzhou 5.

Further, on June 16, 2012 China launched Shenzhou 9 with a crew of three, Liu Wang, Jing Haipeng and Liu Yang, from the launch pad at Jiuquan Satellite Launch Centre in western Gansu province. Liu Wang became the first female Chinese astronaut to go to space.

June 11, 2013 - The Chinese launched the Shenzhou 10 mission, which was its fifth and longest crewed space mission, with three crew members.

In July 29, 2016, NASA placed an order with SpaceX for a crewed mission to the International Space Station. It's the fourth and final order under a government-funded program that contracts with private companies with the goal of launching astronauts from US soil again. SpaceX has two of the orders, while another company Boeing got two more orders. The two companies are expected to launch astronauts in 2019.

Most recently, on 15 August 2018, the Prime Minister of India, Mr. Narendra Modi announced ‘Mission Gaganyaan’ which is a manned Indian spacecraft envisioned to be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The spacecraft is being designed to carry three people and is set to launch in 2022. This mission would make India the 4^th country in the world to launch a Manned-space mission after Russia, USA and China.

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has sought the help of the Institute of Aerospace Medicine (IAM), a centre of the Indian Air Force to provide medical assistance to the crew members of Gaganyaan.

Space medicine has evolved hand-in-hand with the above stated space endeavours undertaken by various countries.

It is clear from the above missions that manned - space exploration has been limited, considering that only three countries so far have succeeded in man-space missions, however, these missions limited as they may be, have let space scientists, doctors and surgeons observe, analyse and establish certain key psychological and physiological impacts Space-travel has had on the human body. Some of these effects are listed and discussed in brief in the section that follows.

III. Effects of space travel on the human body

The research done by space scientists based on the studies of the people who have travelled to space has helped understand the effects of space on the human body to a certain extent. Some of the most common physiological and psychological effects include: decreased immune system functioning, increased infection risk, fatigue, loss of balance, loss of bone density and muscle mass, impaired eyesight etc.

In this regard, the Human Research Program of NASA has been instrumental in attempting to classify and categorize to some extent the risks (to the human body) involved with space travel. NASA has grouped these risks into five categories based on the various factors that influence space travel and the traveller. They are:

• Gravitational fields,
• Isolation/Confinement,
• Hostile/Closed Environments,
• Space Radiation, and
• Distance from Earth.

Each of these are discussed briefly herein below.

(A) Gravitational Fields

The gravitational levels on earth are different from those in space. As such, when one transitions from one gravity field to another the human body faces spatial dis-orientation, head-eye and hand-eye coordination fluctuations, imbalance, and locomotion disabilities. Further, without gravity, the loss of bone density and minerals of the human body are also higher. NASA has found that without gravity working on your body, your bones lose minerals, with density dropping at a rate over 1% per month when the average rate of loss of bone density for an adult on earth is much lesser. This loss of bone density can continue to be an issue even after the astronaut has returned to earth. As such, a meticulous rehabilitation process must be administered in order to regain bone density upon return. Also, due to lack of gravity in space, the fluids in the body shift upwards to the head, which could put pressure on the eyes causing vision problems. These are some of the problems that space travellers face as a result of gravitational force differences in space.

(B) Isolation/confinement

Research has shown that behavioural changes

among groups of people packed in a small unit for a long time are inevitable no matter how well trained they are for the mission. These include issues like a decline in mood, cognition, morale, and reduced interpersonal interactions. The stress undertaken by the crew, coupled with the fact that their bodies have to adapt to different environmental conditions, can result in anxiety, insomnia and depression.

(C) Hostile/closed environments

It has been observed that the environment inside the spacecraft can change characteristics of ‘Microbes’ present in the human body when in space. The microorganisms that naturally live in the body tend to transfer more easily from person to person when in closed habitats like the space station. This closed environment also tends to weaken the immune system of the body. The human body also faces alterations, which could lead to increased vulnerability to allergies or other illnesses, and disease.

(D) Space Radiations

The Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere shield us from harsh cosmic radiation. In space, astronauts are exposed to over ten times the radiation than what is naturally occurring on Earth. This exposure could cause an increased risk of cancer. It can damage the central nervous system, leading to both-long term and short-term consequences which include but are not limited to altered cognitive function, reduced motor function, and behavioural changes. Space radiation can also cause radiation sickness which leads to nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and fatigue. One could also develop cataracts, cardiac, and circulatory diseases.

(E) Distance from Earth

If the crew is under-equipped with medicines, and provisions while on longer distances, the repercussions could be catastrophic. Also a longer distance entails a longer period of time in space under close, hostile conditions. As such, the risks to the human body are even more.

These are some of the factors that adversely affect the human body during space travel. The diagnosis for these medical conditions is not uniform or standard as the impacts of these on each human body are different. NASA has found several techniques that will help prevent or at least reduce the impact of some of these instances which are adopted either before take- off, while in space and after returning to earth.

IV. Medical standards for space flight

From the previous section, it is clear that space travel can have devastating and damaging effects on the human body. As such, this section will focus on what some of the standards adopted by some active-space nations around the worlds are in this regard. The standards and endeavours made by NASA, India, Europe and China are discussed herein.

(A) NASA, USA

Prior to space travel, the candidates shortlisted for the same undergo vigorous and conditioned training program. The training happens at three stages. The first stage involves learning technical skills in various systems like space physiology, orbital mechanics, life support systems etc. The astronauts are also taught the operations of the International Space Station (ISS) and other man-made bodies in space and safety systems of the craft.

While in space, in order to fight the hostile impacts that space travel could have on the human body, NASA has under the Human Research Program developed certain tools that could aid the human body. For instance, in order to combat the gravitational changes, the use of ‘thigh cuffs’ has proven to be successful. Further, the use of Bisphosphonate drugs has been effective in preventing bone loss. NASA continues to do research in the field.

After returning, a rehabilitation program is also present so as to help the astronauts re-adjust to the environments on earth both physically and mentally.

(B) Roscosmos, Russia

Russia also trains the astronauts in three phases. These are:

• General Space Training,
• Group Training, and
• Crew Training.

General Space Training spans around two years and consists of classes, survival training, and a final exam in order to determine what kind of work the astronaut will be undertaking while in space. Following this, the candidates undergo ‘Group Training’ where they learn the professional skills. Lastly, during the ‘Crew Training’ the candidates spend about one and a half years in learning and mastering vehicle operation procedures, ISS training, and are also taught the English language.

The training mostly takes place at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center which has real size mock-ups of all major Russian spacecraft’s and the ISS.

(C) Chinese National Space Administration, China

In China, the members belonging to the Chinese air force who are selected by the ‘Chinese National Space Administration’ are chosen as astronauts. The candidates are required to be between 160 cm and 172 cm in height, and around 50 kg and 70 kg in weight.

Chinese astronauts also undergo training in 3 phases. During the first phase which lasts about a year, candidates learn about human physiology and psychology. The second phase of training spans over nearly 3 years and involves extensive training in piloting space vehicles in normal and emergency modes. The final stage of training is for about 10 months long and is mission specific. During this phase of training, astronauts are skilled in the high fidelity Shenzhou trainer, as well as the Neutral Buoyancy Facility located at the Astronaut Center of China (ACC), in Beijing. At every stage, astronauts experience physical conditioning of the human body towards environmental factors of space.

(D) ISRO, India

The Indian human space flight program- Gaganyaan is set to launch in 2022. The mission is expected to take the astronauts in a Soyuz-type orbital vehicle into low earth orbit. The training for these astronauts is monitored closely by ISRO with help from NASA and Roscosmos.

In order to help ensure safety of the crew members, ISRO has also sought help from Institute of Aerospace Medicine (IAM). IAM has identified and has started dure research on the following aspects:

• Selection of Vehicle Crew and Training.
• Environment Control and Life Support System (ECLSS).
• Human Engineering WorkStation Design for Crew Module.
• Isolation and Psychological Management.
• Human Factors considerations in the Manned Space programme.
• Microgravity Research.
• Clinical Space Medical and Surgical Management.
• Radiation Protection.
• Toxicology in Space.
• Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA) Design.
• Heat Stress Management.
• Infrastructure Development related to aero medical Support amongst others.

So far, India does not have its own astronaut-training program and therefore the crew for Gaganyaan will receive their training from the technologies and facilities either in the USA or Russia.

These are the guiding standards for Astronaut-Training by the countries that have either sent man to space or are in the active process of doing so. As can be noted, these are not standards based on any national or international legislations or conventions. They are rather some programs that the various Space Research Agencies in the respective countries have established over time based on the study of space medicine and meticulous space biology research. While it can be seen that there is still a lot more standardization and uniformity that is needed in this regard, what seems to be commonly accepted in almost all the discussed nations is the ‘Three-Phase Training Program’. If refined and defined adequately, with the consensus of all space-nations, this could be mandated as a requirement under international law.

V. Debatable considerations in space medicine

It is no secret that there is still much to explore and learn from space and its possibilities. It is for this reason that gauging and defining the psychological and physiological impacts of space travel on the human body is a complex task that has to constantly evolve through perpetual research and case-study. This said however, the endeavours for space travel and manned missions to space, the moon and other celestial bodies such as Mars are also increasing by the day by several countries across the globe. In this situation, it becomes essential to establish medical standards, legal obligations and duties in order to regulate manned space travel uniformly, especially considering the fact that space travel poses a much higher risk to the human body. In this regard, there are several complexities and challenges that need to be considered on medical, ethical and legal grounds. Some of these considerations are discussed herein below.

(A)Informed Consent – Is it possible in Space?

According to the Cambridge Dictionary an ‘informed consent’ means:

“Agreement or permission to do something from someone who has been given full information about the possible effects or results”

An informed consent is a cornerstone of medical ethics especially in cases involving high risk.

Prior to Space flight, every astronaut is required to sign an informed consent approving his/her flight to space. However, there is much debate about the ethical validity of informed consent involving space travel. This is because the possible outcomes and effects of space travel are very vague, un-uniform and not entirely explored. There is a necessity for much clarity in this regard. An internationally accepted standard based on reasoned research and comprehensive discussion can provide such clarity.

(B) The Dilemma of Disclosure of Astronaut Medical Information

One important step in any space expedition is to collect medical data of the crew travelling to space. This is a necessary step in space-biological research in order to assess the physiological and psychological impact of space travel. However, the other side of this is that it requires the astronaut to make disclosures about his/her personal medical conditions to be scrutinized and discussed by all. The situation is complicated further owing to the fact that the astronauts, being citizens of a particular country, are protected by the privacy laws of the said nation. In such a situation, do the larger needs of scientific development outweigh the right to privacy that an individual can exercise or vice-versa? This is yet another ethical confusion in space medicine that can be clarified to a certain extent if a ‘law’ is enacted and implemented clarifying the matter at an international level.

(C) The Doctor- Astronaut Relationship

The doctor-patient relationship and the right, obligations and duties attached to each party depends to a large extent on the context of medical relations and the circumstances under which it was invoked. For instance, an act done by a prudent doctor during an emergency situation would not have the same legal repercussions as an act done during the normal course of events. In a space flight, an on-board space doctor plays multiple roles. He/she is a coach, a physician, a clinical-researcher and also a fellow astronaut. As such, the relationship and legal dynamics become more complex. Rules such as the Bolam Test, due care etc. as established for cases on earth do not apply in the same manner to a doctor’s acts while in space. There needs to be clarity in this aspect as well.

VI. The inadequacy of internat-ional law – a challenge

Space is deemed to be an international asset- a common heritage of mankind. As such, any activities or expeditions related to space fall predominantly under the purview of Air and Space Law. The international law with regard to space is established primarily by the 5 treaties by the United Nations Committee on Peaceful Use of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) and the additional protocols therein. These five treaties are:

• The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1967
• The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1968.
• The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972.
• The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space,1976 and
• The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1979.

Though these treaties contribute significantly in clarifying aspects related to the use of space, their contribution to the development of space medicine is nil. The Outer Space Treaty established under Article VI that States Parties “bear international responsibility” for activities undertaken in outer space, even when they are carried out by non-governmental entities.

The Rescue Agreement provides for the rescue and return of astronauts and objects launched into space. Under the Liability Convention, the “launching State” is made liable for damage caused to persons on board a space object where the damage is due to its fault or the fault of persons for whom it is responsible.

The state in which a said spacecraft is registered, “shall retain jurisdiction and control over such object, and over any personnel hereof, while in outer space” according to article VIII of the Registration Agreement. Lastly, the Moon Treaty deals with the exploration of mood and other celestial bodies.

It is important to note here that none of these treaties require the member states to adopt or regulate any safety standards for crew or passengers of a spacecraft. In fact, so far, no rule of customary international law has been established vis-à-vis passenger safety or medico-legal liability in relation to space flights.

This situation needs to change, and there needs to be a dialogue between international space agencies such as NASA, ISRO, European Space Agency etc. and organisations like the UNCOPUOS, UN Office of Outer Space Affairs along with representatives of national governments to establish some space medicine standards for crew and passengers before launch, during space flight and upon return.

This would create a more prepared and trained and healthy space crew, reduce the damage caused to the human body while in space and ensure that the astronauts are adequately rehabilitated upon return. Further, all the chaotic lacunas with regard to some of the ethical considerations of space medicine (as discussed earlier) would also get clarity.

VII. Analysis and conclusion

In conclusion, it can be said that space medicine is a complex subject as it needs to be constantly updated on the basis of continuous study, research and observation. Nonetheless, given the manned missions to space, the moon and other celestial bodies like Mars are now national priorities of nations, the need to have an international law that establishes fundamental principles of astronaut training, safety measures that must be undertaken by space agencies, the state-liability in case of damage caused prior to, while at and after returning from space. This requires the meticulous cooperation of national and international actors along with space scientists and space biologists.

The law with regard to space medicine must be formalized and standardised. For example, during the pre-flight stage, a comprehensive ‘Three-Phase- Astronaut Training Program’ must be mandated under international law for any nation that seeks to undertake manned missions to space and beyond. This system is already followed by various space agencies; however, it could be harmonized and consolidated after proper research and discussion so that there is more legal clarity in the matter.

Similar such convergences must be made in other aspects of space medicine and the legal liabilities of the doctor and astronaut must also be clarified and defined by law. The ethical questions related to informed consent and the privacy rights of astronauts will always be subject to debate; but a law establishing the core principles of space explorations could help in deciding which side to incline towards when in a morally questionable situation.

If a comprehensive international convention establishing standards of space medicine and the legal obligations of any participating nation therein is established, it will not only help ensure more safety to man in space and promote long-term space and cosmic expeditions but it will also encourage smaller nations to increase their activities in space as they will have a model or rather skeleton law to rely upon. In today’s world where space activities are privatized and events like space tourism are making their way into the lives of individuals, the need for an all-encompassing, international law on space medicine is crucial.

Frequent and increased endeavours of man is space and possibly other planets are the inevitable future and the sooner there is a law to govern the safety of man in space, the better.

VIII. Bibliography

PRIMARY SOURCES:

Conventions/ Treaties:

1. The Outer Space Treaty, 1967

2. The Rescue Agreement, 1968

3. The Liability Convention, 1972

4. The Registration Convention, 1976

5. The Moon Agreement, 1979

NASA Publications:

1. Dunbar B, “Who Was Alan Shepard?” (NASA June 9, 2015) <https://www.nasa.gov/au dience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/who -was-alan-shepard-58.html>

2. Dunbar B, “What Was the Apollo Program?” (NASA February 24, 2015) <https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-was-apollo-progra m-58.html>

3. Abadie L, Lloyd C and Shelhamer M, “The Human Body in Space” (NASA March 30, 2016) https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/bodyinspace

SECONDARY SOURCES:

Journal publications:

1. Lily Srivastava, ‘Space Medicine and the Law’ [2012] ‘CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN AIR AND SPACE LAW’ 284 <http://www.nludelhi@ac.in>.

2. Sheldon Charles. ‘Histories of the Soviet/Russian Space Program’. Progressive Management Publications. ISBN 978-1549696589. OCLC 1019250543

Books:

1. Dietrich Manzeyand ors, ’Mental performance in extreme environments: results from a performance monitoring study during a 438-day spaceflight, Ergonomics, (1998) 41 (4): 537–559.

2.Seedhouse E, ‘Prepare for Launch’ (Praxis 2010) https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4419-1350-0#about

3. ‘6 Exploring the Ethics of Space Medicine’, Institute of Medicine, (2001), Safe Passage: Astronaut Care for Exploration Missions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10218, pp. 172-291

4. Morring F, 'Astronaut Training', (2009), Aviation Week and Space Technology, pp.48-49.

Newspaper and Magazine Articles:

1. Walker A, “UK | Magazine | Project Paperclip: Dark Side of the Moon” (BBC News November 21, 2005) <http://news.bbc.co.uk/ 2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4443934.stm>

2. Lafleur, Claude. "Costs of US piloted programs". March 8, 2010,The Space Review. Ralph H. Didlake, KK5PM; Oleg P. Odinets, RA3DNC (28 September 2007). "Sputnik and Amateur Radio". American Radio Relay League.

3.‘Human Spaceflight Fast Facts’ (CNN August 8, 2018) https://edition.cnn.com/2013/07 /01/world/human-spaceflight-fast-facts/index.ht ml

4. Hindustan Times, ‘Indian will take national flag to space on board Gaganyaan by 2022’, says PM Narendra Modi in Independence Day speech.. 15 August 2018.

5. Peter Dickens, “The Social Relations of Space Travel” [2017] Monthly Review https://monthlyreview.org/2017/03/01/astronauts-at-work/

6. ‘IAM in Talks with ISRO to Provide Medical Support to Gaganyaan’ The Hindu (February 7, 2019) https://www.thehindu.com/sc i-tech/science/iam-in-talks-with-isro-to-provide-medical-support-to-gaganyaan/article26204805 .ece

Websites and Blogs:

1. ‘Earth's Magnetic Field Shields Us from What Threat?’ (Physics Stack Exchange) https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/202097/earths-magnetic-field-shields-us-from-wh at-threat

2.‘Cosmonaut Training Overview’ (RuSpace) <http://suzymchale.com/ruspace/training.html>

3. Redd NT, “Alan Shepard: First American in Space” (Space.com October 10, 2018) <https://www.space.com/17385-alan-shepard-first-american-in-space.html>

Others:

1. L Braak, ‘Benifits of Space Medicine for Health’ (1999) 433 Utilisation of the International Space station, Proceedings of 2nd European Symposium 491 <http://articles.adsa bs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-article_query?bibco de=1999ESASP.433..491B&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=YES>

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